Migratory Behavior of Mallard Ducks Essay

There are four fundamental decisions that most animals make when it comes to mechanisms of adaptation: where to live, how to gather food, how to avoid predators, and what tactics to use to reproduce (Alcock, 1993). Habitat preferences in animals require satisfying their needs (ignoring or actively avoiding others, nutritional needs to perform growth, development and reproduction) at the same time experiencing higher fitness than those unable to settle in the favored habitat. There were also several hypothesis presented which correlates habitat preference and fitness. The seasonal dispersion of some animals like ducks is a costly business in terms of energetic expenses and risk to exposure to predators. On the other hand, considering dispersal cost, animals that do not respond to dispersion pay the price of deterioration due to the inability to adapt to the prevailing ecological conditions. Considering the inbreeding avoidance hypothesis (Ralls et. al, 1979), on ducks in particular, Mallard ducks may have migrated then for the purpose of expanding their genetic pool by interbreeding with Anas rubipes a close relative of the Anas playrynhos. The costly dispersal of Mallards may have been to avoid inbreeding depression primary of which is to circumvent the expression of damaging recessive alleles resulting from the mating of two closely related mates of the same species. This further correlates with the mate competition hypothesis (Moore and Ali, 1984), which states that males tend to fight against one another for mates therefore looser find it more energy efficient to seek closely related species to which they may successfully mate. When mating season is over, male disperses to avoid their daughters when these female become sexually mature. Animals engage into energetically exhaustive activity trying to complete the course of their journey to attain its fundamental goals. As the animal arrives to its destination, the issue of territoriality always comes to mind whenever a new species is introduced into a new environment and every time the visitor interacts with the native. While other animals ignore or tolerate the presence of a new species in its territory, others are extraordinarily aggressive in defending their territory from intruders. Territoriality among animals contributes to reproductive successes or failure to the contrary which further leads to interspecific competition. If suitable breeding sites really are short of supply, then one should be able to find non-territorial, non-breeding, individuals in populations of territorial animals. If this is so, the niche similarity of the visitors to the native may introduce interspecific competition with the available supplies. Territoriality may also influence the reproductive success of these visitors as it was found by Dhondt and Schillemans (1983). Territorial animals may invade the nesting sites of migratory birds which may lead to decreased viability and clutch. The ability of birds to fly and survive various environmental conditions has led to their development over time. Seasonal migration of mallard ducks (Anas platyrynchos) has been one of the intriguing aspects of its behavior. This behavior has been influenced mainly by several factors such as foraging (Heitmeyer, 2006), competition (Mc Auley, et al. , 2004), reproductive behaviors (Hill, 1984) which also includes the preservation of nesting sites, and interbreeding (Brodsky, 1989) and seasonal weather conditions (Ridgill, et al. , 1990 in D. Hill, 1992, Whyte & Bolen, 1984, Poiani & Johnson, 1991). Statement of the Problem From previous articles, it has been reported that Mallard ducks are reoccupying old territories throughout the United States and Canada (Talent, et. al. , 1983). From this observation, it can be inferred that various ecological changes in both habitat and inhabitants may take place. Since mallard ducks in this regard are annual visitors in these habitats, the temporary habitation of previous and new territories may significantly affect native animal species. With the combined hypothesis that Mallard ducks migrate from previously occupied territories due to overlapping conditions which may occupy new territories due to insufficiency of the previous, the study will assess the behavioral patterns of Mallard ducks towards returning to previous foraging territories and establishing new foraging regions (migratory routes) outside of their original habitats, specifically the study will address four major areas of concern. 1. What behavior of the Anas playrynchos determines the suitability of a habitat to be considered sufficient which helps it decide to inhabit previous foraging territories and new regions outside of their original habitats? 2. What behavioral mechanism will the Anas platyrynchos exhibit upon visiting a previous foraging territory and new regions outside of their original habitats if a highly territorial organisms was encountered upon landing? 3. What general behavioral model applies during the interaction of two closely related species (Anas rubipes and Anas platyrynchos) occupying the same niche in terms of: a. Reproductive tactics b. Foraging preferences c. Territoriality 4. What chances that the introduction of less territorial animal may cause significant adaptive stress (competitive stress) to a more territorial species? Hypotheses It is hypothesized that there is no significant differences in the previously reported behavioral mechanisms in Anas platyrynchos that helps it determine to decide on its habitat preferences. Alternatively, Anas platyrynchos establishes new migratory routes due to impending factors such as avoidance of predators, seasonal weather conditions, reproductive tactics and foraging preferences. Else, Anas platyrynchos establishes new migratory route or return to previous foraging areas due to certain conditions such as habitat destruction, scarcity of supplies needed to reproduce, and extreme territoriality between natives and migrants. Experimental Design In order to test these hypotheses, the study will be divided into two phases: the in vivo phase and in vitro phase. At the in vitro phase, groups of experimental populations of Mallard ducks will be placed in a study area which will allow observation of significant behavioral patterns relevant to foraging, reproductive tactics/quality such as mate preference, clutch size, egg size and viability, and interspecific competition. Two species of closely related species of ducks the Anas rubipes (native, will be allowed to acclimatize until such time that they one or two reproductive cycles have been achieved) and Anas platyrynchos (introduced species, will be introduced only after the native have been acclimatized well) will be situated in the same habitat which will be observed for close interaction. Behavioral patterns on mate preferences and competitive exclusion will be observed by on-site observation using a hidden observation platform. Foraging preferences will be looked upon by collection and analysis of droppings from both species. Geographical invasion of feeding territories will be looked upon by assigning quadrat areas which will be initially determined by the territorial preferences of both species of ducks. Territoriality will be measured by the number of times the more aggressive native will disturb the nesting sites of the migrants and the instance that the migrant will be driven away from a specific foraging site. Specific effects of such behavior will be measured by performing initial and final biometry of the two species of ducks. Decrease in biometric qualities from both adult and eggs would mean the inability to adapt into such competitive behavior. Possible effects of migrant foraging on native non-avian species will also be observed by recording the feeding activity of non-avian species living along the vicinity which might directly contribute to the promotion or disruption of the food chain brought about by the introduction of a new consumer. To observe the habitat preference of ducks with is natural behavior in its intact natural behavior, the in vivo phase will be done. Radio satellite transceivers will be wing banded on representative Anas platyrynchos through catch and tag method (including the alpha male) that are about to engage into seasonal journey to trace their possible destinations and stop-over. The result will be compared to previous annual migration data (20 years in succession or more depending on the available information) to establish a pattern supporting the behavioral mechanism that the ducks employ in selecting a habitat which sooth their preference. On site visitation of previously reported migration destinations will be surveyed to confirm habitation of previously occupied regions. Ecological evaluation and mapping of visited areas (stop-over and final destination) will be done and compared with other visited areas for specific pattern. Thorough monitoring of migration paths via remote sensing will be followed to confirm if ever there is a change in the migratory route. Conclusions will be based on the assessment of significant differences between the previously reported data and the novel information. Summary All in all, birds may move to various locations for survival. If the prevailing conditions decrease fitness, migratory ducks may move to different locations to continue to find food, reproduce and avoid predation. When the conditions increase fitness, these ducks will then return to their natal site where they will breed and raise their young. It may be that physical conditions and forces that govern the earth’s magnetic poles, hormonal changes, changing weather patterns or other various factors contribute to the birds’ urge to migrate to their seasonal habitats. For the purpose of this paper, the most important factor to be considered are the consequences to native animals belonging in the same niche brought about by abrupt or gradual changes in migratory routes and the resulting occupation of new or old territories. In the evolutionary perspective, animals are able to adapt into their environment mainly by employing specific behavioral mechanisms that would enable them to perfectly cope. At the event that an animal fails to establish equilibrium with its environment, serious complications arise. The study will better establish significant behavioral patterns in Mallard ducks which enable to blend in and adapt in variable habitats. Such adaptive behavior may serve as a key towards preserving animal species that are in danger of extinction simply because the adaptive behavior is not appropriate for survival. References Cited Alcock, John. 1993. Animal Behavior: an evolutionary approach, 5th ed. Sinauer Associates, USA. 279-379. Dhondt A. A. , and J. Schillemans. 1983. Reproductive success of the great tit in relation to its territorial status. Animal Behavior 31:902-912. Heitmeyer, M. E. 2006. The Importance of Winter Floods to Mallards in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley. Journal of Wildlife Management. Vol. 70, No. 1. pp. 101-110. Hill, David. 1992. Cold Weather Movements of Waterfowls in Western Europe. The Journal of Animal Ecology, Vol. 61, No. 1. Feb. , pp. 238-239. Hill, D. A. 1984. Population Regulation in the Mallard (Anas platyrynchos). Journal of Animal Ecology. 53. pp. 191-202. Mc Auley, D. G. , et. al. 2004. Dynamic use of wetlands by black Mallards: Evidence Against Competitive Exclusion. Wildlife Society Bulletin. Vol. 32. , No. 2. pp. 465-473. Poiani, K. A. , Johnson, W. C. 1991. Global Warming and Prairie Wetlands. BioScience, Vol. 41, No. 9. Oct. pp. 611-618. Talent, L. G. , et. al. 1983. Survival of Mallard Broods in South-Central North Dakota. The Condor, Vol. 85, No. 1. Feb. , 1983, pp. 74-78. Whyte, R. J. , and Bolen, E. G. 1984. Impact of Winter Stress on Mallards Body Composition. The Condor, Vol. 86, No. 4. pp. 477-482. Moore, J. , and R. Ali. 1984. Are dispersal and inbreeding avoidance related? Animal behavior 32:94-112. Ralls, K. , et. al. 1979. Inbreeding and juvenile mortality in small populations of ungulates. Science 206: 1101-1103.

Ambugity and Clarity in Writing

I chose example 2 which stated â€Å"I was thrown from my truck as it left the road. I was later found in a ditch by a flock of wild turkeys. † This statement in my opinion is an example of vagueness. The vagueness comes from the statement that is very unclear. I am having a hard time understanding how this person was thrown from their truck. It is missing information and is hard to follow. This statement allows me to know that the person was thrown from a truck but we do not know how or how they were found by a ditch of flock.This could have been by a car accident or by someone who could have literally threw this person out of the truck. This type of vagueness throws the reader off because they are unclear of what is really going on in the writing, it becomes a problem when you are trying to understand reasoning behind this statement. The second sample writing I chose was â€Å"The online course helps me in a lot of ways. I can use all kinds of resources. The place in the li brary offer tutorials in all different areas, Microsoft Word, Excel and other tutorials.Also, there is services, that offers technical support, tutoring, library help, and then there are financial aid and academic advising. The library section offers help in finding books, journal articles and more. There is even places in math, writing and technical. † This statement is ambiguous because it is open to more than one interpretation. This can be speaking on behalf one online course or the school of online courses. Also when they mentioned that the library offers all types of resources it does not specify which library and where this library can be found. It could be found online or it could be a place where you have to go.When you write a statement it needs to be clearly understood and it should not have your reader trying to understand the statement you are trying to put across. In this example the writer would get that the writer likes online courses but in the supporting sent ences it just goes into stating help from the library and is somewhat confusing. The relationship between critical thinking and clear writing is that they both work together. You have to critically think to clear write. When you are jotting things down your brain is working to come up with these unique thoughts which is critically thinking. They go hand in hand.

Technologies are important and helpful in everyone’s life Essay

Computers help people to do such things or tasks easily and faster. Technology has a systematic and organized way of keeping data records, computing numbers, accomplishing a lot of transactions and reports. A system of a library is made to have a fast process of transactions for searching book titles, borrowing books, returning books, computing penalties and generating an accurate report. Aguilar Catholic School, High school department is located at Poblacion Aguilar, Pangasinan. It is a religious school and the religion of all the students and staffs is Roman Catholic and their library is open for them. It has a collection of books, magazines, journals, dictionaries, encyclopedias and other reading materials. The library is still using a card catalogues in searching books and the librarian is still using manual transaction for borrowing, returning and generating reports. Using a manual process is a hard work and because of it the librarian is having a problem to serve each students and faculties who wish to use the library. Aguilar Catholic School is using a record book to track borrowed books from the library. The librarian will write down the book being borrowed, borrower, book information, date borrowed and the date returned. A penalty is given to the borrower if he/she loses the book; the due date of returning of the book has ended. The penalty for losing a book depends on the amount of the book and if the borrower returned the book after its due date the penalty is 10 pesos. The proponent observed a lot of errors occurring in their manual system. The librarian is having difficulty working in the library and the borrowers are having difficulty in searching the book. General Objective The general objective of this project is to develop and implement a LAN base library system with barcode for Aguilar Catholic School to improve their processes and operations that will make transactions and the generation of reports accurate, fast and easy. Specific Objectives The specific objectives of the project are the following: * To design a prototype that will be easy to navigate interface * To develop a library system that will encourage students to use the library as the main source of information. * To develop a system that will be secured by applying user ID and password so that authorized persons can only access the important tasks. * To develop a system that will make use of barcode scanner, thus remove the filling up of different forms, for more rapidly borrowing and returning transactions. * To develop a system that will make cataloguing simpler. * To develop a system that will make searching of the available books and other reference materials in the library easy for the students. * To make a system that will make inventory of books and other reference materials reduce time consuming. * To develop a system that will produce accurate annual and quarterly statistical reports fast. * To test and evaluate the acceptability of the system in terms of functionality, reliability, usability and so on by gathering feedback from prospective users and technical experts. * Scope of the Project Since Aguilar Catholic School doesn’t have any computerized system, the scope of the project will include the system will make use of the barcode technology so the students and employees will only have to use their IDs when making a transaction, which is more convenient. The project include; the following features: Easy to navigate Interface; capability to search for the available title, author and subject of the book; compute the fine of the book when it is overdue; Inventory of books and other reference materials; and the generation of reports that they are making which are annual and quarterly statistical reports. The project will include student, employee’s alumni ledger, which will list all the reference materials that they borrowed. The report for the list of unreturned books will also be included in the project. For the students to search about the availability of books and other reference materials inside the library the researchers will include a LAN-based Public Access Catalog. All information covered within the system is in accordance with the existing book references within the library of the school. The system will only be implemented in the secondary library of Aguilar Catholic School. The system is LAN-based; it can only be accessed inside the campus. * List of Deliverables * User Manual It contains guide and associated images in how program should look like document intended to give assistance to people using a particular system, the proponents will provide a booklet that can guide them in how the system works. * Training Plan Training Plan is to define the strategies, tasks, and methods that will be used to meet the training requirements, the proponents will train the users and explain to them how the system works. The proponents will also observe and gather data while the users are using the new system. * Deployment Plan. Deployment Plan defines how software will be implemented into the organization that will access deployed applications, the proponents will make sure that the system will work properly and it will satisfy the company before letting them to use it, In the deployment plan the proponents will have to use SQL server for the database, cables for connection, barcode scanner, printer and computers for the LAN-based Public Access Catalog and for the workstations of the librarian. * Maintenance Plan It is plan that defines rate and scope of corrective and preventative maintenance for applications or software. Corrective maintenance is a reactive modification of a software product performed after delivery to correct discovered problems, Maintenance Plans are also sometimes known as Standard Operating Procedures. The procedures the proponents will be doing are Recovery Plan and Backup, Recovery plans contain detailed instructions for returning services to a working state. Backup plan or the process of backing up refers to making copies of data so that these additional copies may be used to bring back the original after a data loss event that may be due to failure or unintentionally deleted or corrupted file. CHAPTER II. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING SYSTEM Review of Existing System 0 Manual Library System Of Aguilar Catholic School Borrower Borrower Borrowers Info Book Borrowed Library card Library card Book Info Returned Book Fine info Librarian Newly acquired Books Librarian Penalty Info Reports Figure 1 Context Diagram of Existing System Figure 1 shows the general flow of the existing system within the Library of Roosevelt College. It includes different entities namely: Borrower and Librarian. An also It includes different inputs and outputs. Input are Borrowers info, library card, book info returned book, newly acquired books. Outputs are borrowed book, library card fine info, penalty info, reports. Figure 2. Diagram 0 of Existing System Figure 2 show the detail data process of existing system. First transaction begins with the borrower. Strengths * Manual system can still function without electricity. * A lesser amount of electrical equipment * Users are more familiar with the manual system Weaknesses * time-consuming transactions * Inaccurate information of students and books * Space occupied by the card catalog cabinet and steel drawers. Opportunities * Increase number of enrollees * Increase number that utilized library. * Make faster and accurate transaction using computerized system Threats * Users are not familiar with the computerized system * Computerized system cannot function without electricity * Increase in expenditures, especially in electricity * Files can be corrupted by malware and viruses REVIEW OF RELATED SYSTEMS The UE Library System is a network of eleven libraries, with the Main Library in the Manila Campus as the biggest. There are separate libraries for the Graduate School, CPA Review School, the Colleges of Law, Dentistry and Engineering, the Laboratory Schools and the Archives, as well as special rooms for audiovisual services. There are two libraries in the Caloocan campus, the main library which is the Benjamin G. Chua Jr. Library and one for the College of Engineering. The Main Library in Manila is the hub of the entire system of libraries in the campus. It is the largest among the libraries in the system. It has sections for Circulation, Reserve, CCSS Library, Acquisitions, Cataloging, Reference, Filipiniana, and Periodicals, which are housed on the second, third and fourth floors of the POD-CIT Building. Bibliographic access to the library collections is through the Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC) terminals available in all the libraries. An Online Public Access Catalog or OPAC is an online database of materials held by a library or group of libraries. Users search a library catalog principally to locate books and other material physically located at a library. Users can search by inputting keywords and filter by subject, title, author and sometimes publisher and ISBN number. Additional filter may be according to the type of material, for example if it is a book, journal, magazine, thesis, newspaper, etc. Another filter is by location, if the library system is composed of several libraries like in University of the East. In the proposed system, the proponents will adopt the features similar to OPAC, but it will just be LAN-based. The student’s employees and alumni may search for the information and availability of the book according to the subject, title author, etc. and may choose to filter it by selecting the type of resource material. They may see if the book is on-shelf or not. Students and other borrowers may also use it for easy reference in making bibliography for their researches. University of San Carlos has a computerized library system. The main function of their library system is to correct information. Fast transaction and process in borrowing library materials, the services responsive to the needs of all university sectors relative curriculum and research. They are using barcode technology and swiping I. D in such an easy way to borrow and return book. Their library system has an easy to navigate feature and provide accurate reports such as user statistical report, inventory of book, list of book borrowed, penalty for the month, year, list of book per section etc. In the proposed system, the proponents will adopt the features similar to barcode technology and easy to navigate interface and can give accurate reports and eliminating human errors. Operational Definition of Terms Access Code * A sequence of letters or numbers that has to be read in to the allowed somebody to access to something such a building or telephone notebook. Accession Number * Usually auto number, it is a number assigned by the chief librarian to individual books they have in the library. Barcode Reader * It is an input device used to capture and read information contained in a bar code. Cataloguing * Is the process of preparing a catalog, or of preparing bibliographic records that will become entries in a catalog. Circulation * It engages transaction related to the circulation of periodical, books etc. and book check in and checks out. Computer Network * It is an interconnection of group of computers. Context Diagram * It illustrates the input and output between the systems. Database * Is an application that manages data and allows past storage and retrieval of data Data flow diagram * A process-modeling tool that depicts the flow of data through a system and the work or processing performed by the specific system. Keyword Searching * Allows you to retrieve information in a database by looking for the word or combination of words. Keywords can be used in general or specific, such as title or$ subject Library Card * It serves as a pass to the use of the library and its resources Librarian * Is a person who assists and helps the users in using the library services and manages all the library resources. Library * place where all books, newspaper and other reading materials were placed and a place where students can effectively study and gather information they need. Library card  * A paper card that contains student’s information together with his/ her picture that serves as their pass to borrow a book in the library. Library System * Is a library that comprises of the interrelated, computerized parts such as catalog and circulates that works together to effectively serve the users. Manual System * Processing used amount of transaction without the use of computers Shelf * It is a piece of furniture used to store books and other material which is using in a research Student Number * It is a unique identification of each student in school. SWOT  * Is a tool for auditing an organization and its environment. It is the first stage of planning and helps marketers to focus on key issues. SWOT stands for strength, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Strength and weaknesses are internal factor. Opportunities and threats are external factor. CHAPTER III SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGY Requirements specification Software Design & coding Integration Testing Deployment Maintenance Figure Modified Waterfall Model The proponents chose to use the modified waterfall model for the development of the software because it is simple and easy to follow. Another reason is that modified waterfall model is suitable when the specification and requirements are clearly stated and static and the project is smaller in size. Since Library systems have the same requirement s as those of any other library systems, it is the ideal model to use. Modified waterfall model also has advantage to go back to previous stage if there are mistakes done in any phase. Requirements Specification One of the most important tasks in the development of is gathering and defining the requirements for the project. Software requirements specification means that researchers should have a basic understanding of what is going to be developed. The proponents conducted several interviews with the company to understand and identify the problems with their existing system and to specify what features they want the proposed system to have. The researchers also did studies about the related systems in order to know the real transactions and to have an idea on how to design the proposed system. Software design & coding Determines the system’s framework to meet the specified requirements. The design defines the major components and the interaction of those components, but the design does not define the structure of each component. The proponents will do major coding in this phase. The proponents will divide the system into subsystems so that coding will be done by small parts and will later be integrated as a whole system. Integration Is the bringing together of the component subsystems into one system and ensuring that the subsystems function together as a system. It is also the process of linking together different computing systems and software applications physically or functionally. The proponents in this phase will now connect together the subsystems into one system. Testing Determines whether the software meets the specified requirements and finds any errors present in the code before deploying it. The proponents will test wither the system is working properly as one system and to detect errors before presenting it to Aguilar Catholic School. Deployment This is the phase of the project where the developed software will be installed, documentation will be delivered, and client training will occur. In this phase, the proponents will now deploy the equipment and the software in the library. They will have to connect the workstation of librarian and LAN base public access catalogue by the use of cables. Maintenance After the project is deployed, unexpected events can happen. This is why the proponents will continue maintenance and support as part of the software development process. This support will become an evolving process and is essential in making sure that the software continues to perform as expected. Figure 4. System Framework of Proposed System Figure 4 shows the details of the system, all its input and outputs which will be part of the system processes. Figure 5. Context Diagram of Proposed System Figure 6. Diagram 0 of Proposed System Testing and Evaluation Procedure After developing the system, the next step is to test and evaluate its acceptability. This section discusses how testing and evaluation is done. Evaluation Instrument The following were criteria of the evaluation instrument which will serve as the basis of the acceptable level of the system. Numerical Rating| Range| Descriptive Equivalent| 5| 4. 51 – 5. 00| Highly Acceptable| 4| 3. 51 – 4. 50| Acceptable| 3| 2. 51 – 3. 50| Moderately Acceptable| 2| 1. 51 – 2. 50| Slightly Acceptable| 1| 1. 00 – 1. 50| Not Acceptable| Content It will test the accuracy of the proposed prototype as well as its up to date contents. Functionality It includes comprehensively the ease from worries or problems in operation, provision for comfort and convenience and easy to understand by the end – users. Reliability In compliance to desire result, accuracy of performance, the system should be able to give the desired result to the possible end-user of the system. Availability The system will be able to perform operations according to the specifications, provision for security requirements and having all the required by the system. Maintainability It includes the testability of the system, ease of being maintained, provision for diagnostic tools and procedure, and provision enhancement. Statistical Treatment of Data In this section the results gathered from testing and evaluation was being interpreted using appropriate statistical tools. The proponents will set a criterion that specifically address to the end users and technical experts. 1 means Not Acceptable; 2 means Slightly Acceptable; 3 is for Moderately Acceptable; 4 is for Acceptable; and 5 Highly Acceptable. The accomplished testing and evaluation forms will be collected for interpreting its result. To compute the mean, Mean (M) = F (x1 + x2 + xn) / n Where F = Frequency of number of time that the given number(x) was chosen by the respondents as rating for a given criterion x1 , x2 , xn = represent any of the numerical rating 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. To compute the weighted mean, WM = ? F (x1 + x2 + xn) / n Where ? F (x1 + x2 + xn) / n = represents the sum of all means (M) of each criteria. n = is the total number of criteria of evaluation.

Immigration Choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Immigration Choice - Essay Example The choice of the Copper Island represents a more calculated risk for the family. Mr. Paneo, being the head of the family, primarily considers the welfare of his wife and his two children by showing preference to less risky alternatives. Instead of waiting for more than a year before the immigration permit to United Territories is processed and granted, the Paneo family is better off sending Mr. Paneo immediately to Copper Islands. It should be noted that aside from the long wait for the immigration permit, the Paneo family lacks the assurance that they will meet the immigration eligibility for United Territories. The members of the Paneo family have strong ties with each other considering their decision to stay together as one family. However, it is also assumed that they are also willing to endure some sacrifices for their utmost benefit. Thus, the Paneo family, with sad but hopeful hearts, will permit their father to immigrate first in the Copper Islands for a year. This will allow Mr. Paneo to find a good job and a house before his family move in. This will also enable him to prepare his family by providing them with essential information like the climate, the culture, the food and things that they need to be cope with.

Money and banking Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Money and banking - Assignment Example In this context, Commerce National Bank reports interest-sensitive assets of $870 million and interest-sensitive liabilities of $625 million during the coming month. This implies that Commerce National Bank is an asset sensitive one. Since Commercial National Bank is asset sensitive, if interest rates rise, the bank will definitely enjoy a net interest margin. The bank’s productivity on interest income and earning interest will raise its basis point for basis point in line with the market. If the rates fall, it will have its net interest margin compressed. Securitization Securitization of assets refers to the process of collecting various sorts of debts such as car loans, mortgages, or credit card debts and packaging them as bonds, collateralized mortgage obligations, or as pass-through securities. They are then sold to investors. This process can consist of any type of financial assets and it is aimed at reinforcing liquidity in the marketplace. It is also vital for smaller i nvestors to buy shares in a more complex pool. The most amenable assets used in the securitization process include equipment, trucks, automobiles, home equity loans, recreational vehicles, and credit cards. Alternatively, asset-backed deals especially for exotic assets may include: consumer loans, computer leases, time shares, trade receivables, and small commercial loans. Securitization offers numerous benefits to investors, purchasers, and financial institutions. It provides financial lending institutions with a technique to remove assets from their balance sheets, thus raising the pool of obtainable capital to be lent out. In addition, lending institutions are given a chance to utilize their assets to get funds, and most specifically, replacing the lower-yielding assets with higher-yielding ones. From the lending institutions and the regulator’s perspectives, there are some risks associated with the securitization process. This may involve such risks as banks using the bes t quality assets in the procedure, which implies that the remaining portfolio may be more dangerous averagely. This will lead to an increase in the lending institution’s capital requirements. Banks and other lending institutions choose to do this because investment activities balance the benefits that loans offer. In overall, investments demonstrate less credit risks as compared to loans, as well as permitting lending institutions to expand to various places that loans cannot allow. Investment securities also give extra liquid reserves wherever more money is required, help banks to reduce their contact with huge taxes, serve as a prevaricate against losses as a result of the evolving interest rates, and offer collateral as needed by the regulations. There are prepayment and interest rate risks associated with securitized assets. This happens when borrowers pay off or default particular loans in the securitized-asset pool prematurely. The reason behind this may be due to the f all of interest and the substitution of old loans at lower loan rates. Prepayment risk may noticeably lower the security values backed by such loans and alter their appropriate maturities. Further, the considerable drawbacks in these investments such as declining in their market values as the principal assets may lead to increase in default rates. Liquidity Total assets Sales of bank assets are projected to be $18 million Total

Critical evaluation of 4 Ps Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Critical evaluation of 4 Ps - Essay Example This greatness of Nokia is just for the reason that, it identifies the core of brand needs to be portrayed in everything that the company does, particularly those that influence the customers (Hooley & Graham, 2008). The product design is obviously judgmental to the accomplishment of the product, but the question arises that how the Nokia administers to insert qualities in product design? The response is that it provides their user a great deal of consideration to use their phones. The large display screen, for example, is the â€Å"appearance† of the phone. The delineation of phones is arched and easy to grasp. The mobile casing and other features such as colors and functionalities can be customized according to the user’s character, way of life, and frame of mind of the customer. The soft keypads also put in the great deal of compassion and comfort, articulating the brand nature. Product design emphasizes on the customer and their needs, and this can easily be summari zed in the catch phrase â€Å"human technology’’ (Kotler & Pfoertsch, 2006). But in the USA, Nokia status has started shaking. It led the 40% shares of the American market in 2008 with its Symbian OS in 2009, 33% Apple’s iPhone started taking market and some other companies such as Motorola, HTC, Samsung etc. now shares in almost 5% of the American market. Nokia’s big competitors are Samsung, Apple and HTC (Ewan, 2010). Marketing Mix 4P’s Nokia is utilizing successfully its 4P’s Price Place Promotion Product Price Price manipulates the brand price in two ways (1) look for the lowest price to keep away from financial risk or (2) seek the higher price to gain the product quality (Kotler & Pfoertsch, 2006). There is a specific category of customers for which the price is vital especially when considering items for everyday use. In this scenario, some customers may also choose the brand just because they are offered at lowest prices, whereas so me customers prefer to buy high price because they believe that higher price things are of high quality. The phones that Nokia is producing are frequently sold at high prices. The value of new technology starts reducing after two months of its launching time. Nokia phones are mostly sold at ?200+, if they carry the latest technology. The prices of such technology are mostly based on competitors and competition, but they always tried to be within the approach of their customers, they always take their customers under consideration (Gabrielssona & Gabrielsson, 2008). Places Nokia phones are available and generally sold all over the world. Some of the renowned dealers or retailers of this product are Advance telecom, United mobile, Mobile zone, The Find (Dubai), Dixon‘s and other Electrical suppliers. Promotions Advertising which can be done through the TV (series of Nokia Lumia Ad one with Priyanka chopra), Bill boards (all over the world they are using billboards to promote Nok ia), Radio and Newspaper, Posters Dummies and display stands. Nokia is also doing their promotion by providing product trainings for student for which they had arranged special training sessions in various institutions. Promotion is one of the vital aspects to focus upon in this technological industry. Hence every company is bound to use all weapons of marketing which includes front line

Performance Enhancing Drugs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Performance Enhancing Drugs - Essay Example The danger imposed on these mixtures was that when taken in large doses they became poisonous. Actually, this is attributed as one of the causes of early athletes’ deaths like Thomas Hicks. For this reason, using performance-enhancing drugs is not new although it is increasingly becoming more and more popular. Over the years, a number of individuals involved in sports have died either during or after participation in different sports. The loss of many talented athletes who fell victim to PED overdose caused the Olympic team to start up a committee that formulated rules against doping. Nevertheless, some individuals argue that the move of making PEDs illegal was not justified. There has been continued controversy on whether performance-enhancing drugs should be eradicated or legalized. This controversy is at upper levels because some people are in favor of banning PEDs whereas others are continually discovering new ones. Reasons for not legalizing PEDs The use of performance-en hancing drugs should not be legalized. In sports, some PEDs are legal whereas others are not allowed. However, it is important to realize that the legalized PEDs are not harmful. Some of the legal drugs that can be used include supplements and sports foods that provide benefits in sports performance. These legal supplements include bicarbonate, creatine, calcium, carbonate powders, intramuscular iron, intra muscular vitamin, vitamin B12, liquid meal replacements, Melaton, and a few others. In any case, these are not drugs but considered as dietary supplements. Illegal performance enhancement drugs include steroids and methods for enhancement of oxygen transfer. These PEDs are banned because they are meant to increase a person’s activity. Continued use of the drugs, may cause danger to the user. According to most people, the legalization of drugs like steroids could result to lose of fascination in the sports world. In addition, there could be serious medical consequences for the users. Others believe that it is essential to legalize the usage of performance enhancing drugs because individuals would increase their activity, hence, increasing the fun achieved in sports. The awareness to stop the use of PEDs began after the death of a cyclist, Tommy Simpson, during the tour de France cycling race. After his death, specialists confirmed that he had been using amphetamine to enhance his activity during races. Amphetamines is a well known stimulant that is made to imitate adrenaline, hence, causes the users to experience increased alertness, energy and reduced fatigue. It becomes very harmful when the user is dehydrated and is exposed to a lot of heat. The campaign against performance increasing drugs went on and seemed to increase during the Helsinki games of 1952 and the Melbourne Olympics of 1956. However, the sports bodies involved in these games handled the cases ensuring that every player understood the consequences of using PEDs. In the current years, the debate has intensified with different people tabling their arguments about whether the use of drugs should be legalized or not. Some support the use of drugs saying that it makes the action more interesting while those who are against it argue that the use of PEDS

Discuss the arguments for and against the use of Closed Material Term Paper

Discuss the arguments for and against the use of Closed Material Procedures (CMP) in national security matters - Term Paper Example Thus, courts in many cases, have to deny access of specific documents or information to individuals, from the point of view of public interest. Though such measures have been introduced with the primary objective of safeguarding public interest, the issue of CMP has become a controversial topic due to its far-reaching implication of the criminal justice system as a whole. In normal court proceedings, individuals and their legal representatives are allowed to be present and examine all the documents that are allowed as evidences in a case during the trial and such proceedings are known as open procedure. However, in cases where the examination of any documents by individuals is considered as a breach of national security, individuals are not allowed to examine the relevant document and such materials are known as â€Å"closed† materials.3 However, a government appointed lawyer, who represents the individual, or Special Advocate, will be allowed to â€Å"attend all parts ofâ₠¬  the proceedings and extended access to all the documents examined during the trial.4 This is to ensure that the government preserves a â€Å"strong and independent judiciary† to protect the rights and freedom of its citizens.5 On the other hand, the government has a primary responsibility for protecting national security to guarantee the safety and security of the citizens. Thus, it becomes significant that the government strikes a balance between the protection of national security and safeguarding the rights and freedom of individuals. The debate regarding CMPs, thus, focuses its attention on protecting the national security without injuring or compromising the concepts of the freedom of individuals and facilitating them a fair trial. One of the main arguments against CMPs is that the system of suppressing material is â€Å"inherently unfair† and that a hearing that disallows individuals from being present or examining the documents â€Å"undermines the credibil ity† of the legal system.6 The opponents of CMPs further argue that the system of allowing the prosecution, usually represented by the government, to â€Å"present its case† without extending the defence an opportunity of â€Å"public scrutiny† is against the principles of justice.7 They also contend that apart from the inherent risks associated with CMP, it considerably reduces the â€Å"degree of judicial and Ministerial scrutiny† of how the cases are tried and this can have a detrimental effect on â€Å"transparency and accountability† of justice system as well as compromise its â€Å"credibility.†8 Thus, the main argument against CMPs relies on the premise that this practice undermines the concept of fair trial to individuals as in this system they are not allowed to examine all the documents that the prosecution relies on for the purpose of proving their case. It is needless to mention that when a defendant is disallowed the opportunity of viewing a prosecution document, it necessarily pre-empts him or her from properly preparing his or her defence. Thus, this procedure, to a

What is the association between nursing staffing levels and adult Article

What is the association between nursing staffing levels and adult patient falls in hospitals - Article Example At hospital level, number of registered nurses should be increased to monitor patients in the wards and provide the required services. From records, increased number of nurses decreases falls among adult patients (Griffiths et al., 2014). The nursing staffs should be given education so as to understand their roles and associated problems. On the other hand, nurses’ needs should be well catered to motivate them and have enabling environment to offer their services. It can be achieved by considered them as financial assets that have a critical role in the hospital. However, in various unit-levels, experienced nurses should be retained at whichever cost. Evidence has shown that inexperience and lack of the necessary skill have contributed significantly to the falls among adult patients (Griffiths, et al., 2014). During hiring, nurse skill mix should be considered. It involves taking care of skill level and experience in order to improve services. From the records, it is not clear about the component of a nurse that contributes most to the reduction of fall. It is, therefore, crucial to establish this through research and make recommendations. The future studies should as well focus on evaluating the role of non-registered nurse staffs to the increased falls in the hospitals. Their relationship should be validated through replication of studies. Griffiths, P., Ball, J., Drennan, J., Liz, J. & Michael, S. (2014). The association between patient safety outcomes and nurse / healthcare assistant skill mix and staffing levels & factors that may influence staffing requirements: National Nursing Research Unit. New York, 1,

Islamic ART Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Islamic ART - Essay Example One of the fundamental features of Islamic art that sets the tone for the bulk of the collection (though the objects on display are not all Islamic, with also Christian cultures like Egyptian Copts being represented) is the tendency for aniconism, which means unacceptability of images featuring God (for Islam doesn’t actually have a clear visual representation of the latter), human beings or animals. Since the dawn of Islam, the God was perceived as a â€Å"great shaper†, i.e. the only one entitled to endow shape to living beings; thus, the person painting the latter literally encroached divine powers of the God (___). Given strong aniconistic tendencies, Islamic art had another focal features contributing to its authentic nature: these are lavish use ornamentation – predominantly geometric elements and various floral ornaments – and extensive use of Islamic calligraphy. As the objects of art show us, calligraphy is not only a purely practical phenomenon, but also a peculiar Islamic art, a significant cultural attribute of Islam playing an essential role in artistic representations of Islamic culture throughout history. Probably, calligraphy is what would definitely help distinguish an Islamic art object from others, along with orations and lavishness in adornment. This field of Islamic art formed on the basis of Qur’an copying and is therefore the seminal and inseparable part of Islam itself; moreover, Arabic is considered sacred, for it is the language of the Qur’an revelation to the Prophet and is the means for preservation and communication of the message of God. First used for religious purposes only, it later transformed into art and became an integral part of visual art. The Met exhibition features an enormous number of Qur’an folios that were created in different periods beginning with the rule of Umayyads and later. Particularly, a good example of a Qur’an

Summary canterville ghost Essay Example for Free

Summary canterville ghost Essay There was a horrible storm that night, but apart from that nothing scary happened. The nextmorning, however, when the family came down to breakfast, they found the terrible stain of bloodonce again on the floor. Washington cleaned it a second time, but the second morning it appearedagain. The third morning it was there, too, although the library had been locked up at night by Mr Otis himself. The following night, all doubts about the existence of the ghost were finally removed forever. Ateleven oclock the family went to bed and some time after, Mr Otis was awakened by a strangenoise in the corridor, outside his room. It sounded like the clank of metal, and it came nearer everymoment. Mr Otis got up and looked at the time. It was exactly one oclock. So Mr Otis put on hisslippers, went to the door and opened it. There, right in front of him, stood the ghost his eyeswere as red as burning coals; long grey hair fell over his shoulders and from his wrists and ankleshung heavy chains.? My dear Sir,? said Mr Otis, ? you must oil those chains. Its impossible to sleep with such a noisegoing on outside the bedrooms. I have therefore brought you this bottle of lubricator, and I will behappy to supply you with more if you require it.? With these words Mr Otis laid the bottle down,closed his door and went back to bed. Shocked, the Canterville ghost stood quite motionless for a moment, but then he growled angrily. Just at this moment, the twins appeared on the corridor and threw a large pillow at him! The ghosthastily escaped through the wall, and the house became quiet again. When the ghost reached his small secret chamber, he took a deep breath. No ghosts in history hadever been treated in this manner!

Reaction to Nonfiction Essay Example for Free

Reaction to Nonfiction Essay Salvation by Langston Hughes and Who Will Light Incense When Mothers Gone? Are two stories from the text that capture the attention and imagination of the reader. These two are nonfiction short stories that easily relate to the reader as well. Both stories caused a personal reaction as the writer used certain strategies to detail the idea, theme, and purpose behind each of the writings. It is also important to know the difference between a fiction and nonfiction story. The author has to intrigue the reader’s imagination to make the story interesting. Reactions and Strategies Salvation Salvation was written by Langston Hughes in 1940. This is a nonfictional story based on a childhood experience of the authors. Religion was apparently prominent in Hughes childhood and his family seemed to live by God’s word. Religion was so important to his family that he had to make a hard decision on either lying to his family or letting down his Lord. The writer described the day he was to find Jesus as a time to â€Å"bring the young lambs to the fold† (Hughes, 1940. P. 351). The story was moving, intriguing, and heartfelt. The writer made the story believable by giving a detailed setting and theme. The writer also used personal feelings and emotions of others to make this story believable. Who Will Light Incense When Mothers Gone? This short story was written by Andrew Lam in 2003. I was also a nonfictional story based on an experience in Lam’s adult years. Lam’s family were immigrates from Vietnam and the setting is at his mother’s 70th birthday. Lam overheard his mother asking her sister who would continue the tradition of lighting the incense and praying to the ancestors for protection. She seemed to be very concerned as was her sister that this tradition would cease when they passed away. This story was an eye-opener to what one may feel when tradition has been left to the elders and now needs to be passed down to the younger generations. It shows that when one is moved out of their culture they may try to hold on and teach their young, but there is no guarantee that the young will appreciate the values. One line expressed how the writer new his mothers pain, â€Å"mortality never less weighs heavy on her soul† (Lam, 20003. P. 1077). The writer used personal feelings and an insi ght into past and future to guide the reader into a better understanding of the situation. Personal Relation and Intended Purposes Salvation brings back childhood memories of personal experiences with church and family. Memories of summer at vocation bible school camp with friends and the lessons taught by the pastors. Also, movies about African Americans and church in the early and mid 1900’s were thought of during this reading. The purpose of this short story was geared toward understanding the importance of God in the writer’s life and family. The writer also displays the emotional reaction to his decision to lie about finding Jesus. Who Will Light Incense When Mothers Gone?, was a reminder of a military background involved with exposure to many cultures and religious diversities. Every cultures has it’s values and norms. When several generations of a particular culture migrate to America, some of those values will be lost. Individual ambitions will take place of the family traditions and values (Lam, 2003). The mother was upset with the son many times as he grew into an American cowboy, which the Vietnamese identified as being selfish and a rebel (Lam, 2003). The writer’s intent was to inform the reader of a lost tradition with in his family’s culture. Also, to make aware the struggle within to please his mother while upholding his personal ambitions. Nonfiction and Imagination It was apparent that these two stories were nonfiction because both were based on a personal experience that had and emotional impact on their life. The stories related to struggles and decisions that weighed on the consensus. It can be assumed that writing about these events may have taken pressure off the writer. Even with nonfiction the imagination needs to be provoked. The writer must set the theme and give a detailed setting so that the reader can place themselves in the situation. Including emotions of other characters also impact the imagination. If the author is trying to get a certain point across to his readers then they must bring the reader into the scene. Conclusion Both stories were easy to identify with because they were detailed with personal emotions and experiences. The author was aiming for a reaction from the reader that was personal and that was reached. The writer’s intention was clear and understood in both stories and was easy to connect personal experiences with. The two stories were nonfiction and dealt with personal struggles. Being that the two stories were personal it was intriguing to the imagination and simple to relate to. References Barnet, S., Burto, W., Cain, W. (2011). Literature for Composition (9th ed.). : Pearson.

History of the Reformation in Wales

History of the Reformation in Wales The Reformation is one of the most studied, most discussed and heavily analysed periods of English history, arousing controversy and interest through the works of academics and the private study of interested individuals alike. J.A. Froude called it [T]he greatest incident in English history, but it would be just as easy to call it an act of sacrilege motivated by a selfish tyrant, interested more in perpetuating his own line than fulfilling his self-proclaimed role as defender of the faith. No matter the differences of historical opinion, its importance cannot be denied, and nor can its impact. Yet few authors have deigned to focus on the impact of this turbulent course of events on the principality of Wales, nor has there been much discussion of the role of its governor, Rowland Lee. This essay will do exactly that. It will begin with an analysis of the Reformation Acts as this author has dubbed them, the statutes enacted by Henry with the specific aim ofremaking the English church in his image. These measures affected thecountry as a whole, and any aspects peculiar to Wales will be examined. The essay will continue with a detailed look at the Welsh Acts,†statutes often called (wrongly) Acts of Union. Obviously, their effectis specific to Wales, and the attitudes of the Welsh people will be especially noteworthy here. Finally, the scope of the inquiry will turn to the man who implemented those policies as President of the Council of Wales: Rowland Lee, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield. To some he was a blood-thirsty man,the hanging bishop who instigated a reign of terror. To others he was a skilled and efficient administrator, a man who was given a job to do and who took the actions necessary to its success. Once this essay isfinished, the thoughts of the writer will be well known, it will be upto the reader to make the final judgement. The background to the Reformation is long and complex, and is morethan a simple matter of a childish egotists desire to take what he hasbeen told he cannot have. Nor is the motivation as simple as apolitical need to secure the continuation of his line through the birthof a healthy son. Both of these were factors in Henrys thinking, butthey were not as simplistic as they have been portrayed. Henry was ascholar and had the capacity for intelligent, theoretical and theological thought. The Reformation was in part the end result of atheory of kingship based on the kingship of David in the Bible, and ona notion of imperium, that a king was the sole final arbiter of allmatters within his realm. Unfortunately, we do not have the available time or space to go into the causes of the Reformation in more detail. All that need concern the reader for the purpose of this study is that the Popes refusal to annul Henry VIIIs marriage to Catherine of Aragon (thereby invalidating the papal dispensation that had made the marriage legal inthe first place) led Henry to break with the Church of Rome and taketotal control of the church in England. The Church of England, as it became known, had the King at its head; he was the defender of the faith, and no foreign power could determine religious policy in his realm, just as it could not determine administrative policies or set taxation. There is a logical (if not theological) sense in this policy,and it was one that fitted with Henrys newfound theory of kingship. (i) The Reformation in General: A Legislative Revolution Henry was a king who ruled with parliament, and this makes analysis ofhis policies easier, since there is a clear legislative framework toalmost every reforming measure he undertook. Indeed, the parliamentthat enacted this legislation was dubbed the Reformation Parliament.It was through Parliament and the legal apparatus at his disposal thatHenry and Cromwell conducted the reformation of the Church, which wasto become Henrys church. The birth of the Reformation (at least in legal terms) came in the formof the Act of Restraint of Appeals (1533). It stated that as King ofEngland, Henry owed submission to no man, not even the Pope. The actproceeded on the basis that a king owed allegiance and obedience to Godand God alone. No earthly being could tell him how to interpret theScripture, or prevent him from annulling a marriage he had adjudgedsinful. In both theory and practice, it created an autonomous Church ofEngland, with the King at its head. The Act (as with almost alllegislation) was politically motivated, for (as its name implies) itbarred an English citizen from appealing to the Vatican against anydecision made by an English ecclesiastical court. The motivation forthis was obvious. It meant that if an English ecclesiastical courtruled that the marriage between the King and Catherine of Aragon wasinvalid, Catherine could not appeal to the pope. If she did, anyresponse would have no legal force within the Engli sh realm. Since theecclesiastical courts were now as much the kings courts as any otherlegal forum, they would dispense a decision in line with hisinterpretation of the law. This may seem tyrannical and corrupt tomodern eyes, but in Tudor England it made perfect sense. The courtsystem existed because the king was meant to dispense justice but couldnot hope to adjudicate every case himself. Personal intervention ofthis sort was impracticable. With this in mind, for a king to advisethe court of the correct decision was a constitutional act of theutmost legality. Part of the coronation oath was the preservation ofjustice; that is (in theory) all interference in a court case was; theking assuming duties he had previously sworn to perform. It is clear that dealing with his political and marital problems werefar more important to Henry and his government than reforming theChurch itself. The second key measure in the Henrician/Cromwellianreform programme was the Act of Succession (March 1534). The Actconfirmed the bastardy of Mary Tudor, (who had lost her title ofPrincess and was now referred to as the Lady Mary). Mary wasdisinherited and the Princess Elizabeth was named the kings truesuccessor. More importantly, the Act provided that any subject, if soordered, should swear an oath recognising its provisions. Most peoplecomplied without question, but both Thomas More and Bishop John Fisherrefused to take it. Both men paid for this allegiance to the Pope withtheir lives. The Princess Dowager (as Catherine of Aragon was nowdesignated), and her daughter also refused, but their relationship tothe Emperor restrained Henry, who left them to their own devices. It wasnt until later in 1534 (November) that the real changesbegan. The Act of Supremacy gave a legal, statutory definition of thekings position within the structure of this newly created Church ofEngland. It gave the king a statutory title of Supreme Head of theChurch of England and assigned the king all prerogatives to the saiddignity of supreme head of the same church belonging and appertaining.In effect, the pope was being displaced as the head of the church inEngland. Henry of course, had a different view. It was the kings ofEngland who had been displaced by the pope, based on spurious doctrinethat contradicted the Holy Scriptures. God had always intended that theking be master of all matters in his realm. That was why He selectedkings personally, putting them on the throne through his divine powers.His intervention at Bosworth Field had put the Tudors in control of thekingdom of England, and Henry was not about to let some bishop of Romeusurp his God-given authority. That would be to defy the will of God.Naturally, Henry was able to find theologians with concurring views.Richard Sampson, Bishop of Chichester wrote a treatise on the subjectthat made the very point Henry was making in the Act of Succession. Itsaid that The word of God is to obey the King, and not the Bishop ofRome.† Despite all of this, the Church of England remained an essentiallyCatholic church, since Henry had little interest in Protestantism.Indeed, many of the measures he did introduce of an evangelical naturewere later reversed. The Ten Articles of 1536 are a prime example ofHenrys attempts to steer a level course between the extremeCatholic/conservative and Anglican/evangelical wings of his new church.He was eager to keep it a broad church, but not willing to countenanceheresy (he burned papists and people who denied the sacraments withequal vigour). They were supposed to constitute a formulary for the newand improved Henrician church and were not without their controversies.For one thing, it only explicitly recognised three sacraments(baptism, penance and the Eucharist), where the Catholic Churchrecognised seven. Emphasis was laid upon the words of the Scriptures,and the merits of simple Christian life (something difficult torecognise in the grandiose magnificence of Renaissance royal co urts).It was not however, an anti-Catholic formulation as such. It did notcondemn the Mass, nor did it condemn the Catholic call for good works.It was a balancing act, with a little something for everybody, and Weirhas described it as a tentative move in an evangelical direction. Ifit was such a move, it was one that Henry soon reversed. The Act of SixArticles in 1539 resolved any latent ambiguity that existed in theEnglish church, returning it to a clearly Catholic structure. Clericalmarriage was condemned and the vows of chastity were now held to besacred and unbreakable, which put Archbishop Cranmer in an unfortunateposition as his marriage had been an open secret for some time. He wasundoubtedly not alone in finding himself in what was now a compromisingsituation, and it is somewhat ironic that Henry was enactinglegislation to combat illegal marriages. One thing of course, remainedunchanged; papal supremacy was not restored, nor could it be. Henry hadspent years espousing his ow n supremacy over the church, and it hadbeen the guiding principle behind his reign for the past decade. Evenif he had wanted to reverse what he had done and re-enter the CatholicChurch, it would be a political mistake of the highest order, and notone that he was prepared to make. Only one man could have dominion overEngland, and that man was its king. (ii) The Dissolution of the Monasteries: Royal Motives and a Welsh Perspective The Dissolution of the Monasteries was seen by some as an unwarrantedattack on a helpless class of people with no means to defendthemselves, and by others as a necessary purging of a corrupt andparasitical class of clergymen who served no pastoral or practicalpurpose. In reality, it was in the main, a land grab. There was anincreasing likelihood of war with France and Henry had gained fewfriends following Englands break with Rome. As the arch-pragmatist andchief minister Cromwell saw it, the monasteries were an untappedresource. Now that the king was overall arbiter of the churchsfuture, he had a legal authority over the monasteries that he had neverhad before. With this new ecclesiastical power came a desire toexercise it. Cromwell managed to push through an extremely efficientprogramme of dissolution, despite the objections of the kings newbride, Jane Seymour. In four short years, all five-hundred andsixty-three religious houses would be closed, and their inmatespensioned off. This freed up an enormous amount of land and finances which, naturallybecame the property of the Crown. With the injection of the abbeysrevenues into the treasury, the royal income doubled. This new moneywould help to finance Henrys extensive (and expensive) buildingprojects and the acquisition of new property (among other things). TheCrown also annexed monastic lands worth  £120, 000 a year, a massiveamount of money at the time, which amounted to one fifth of thekingdoms landed wealth. The Reformation was a time when the king had no significant standingarmy, despite the threat from the Catholic powers of France and Spainand the not unlikely threat of civil rebellion. To offset this risk,Henry redistributed a third of this new land to secure the loyalty ofimportant men, men who he would come to depend on when the northerupted in rebellion in 1536-7. Whilst the church held one quarter of all Welsh land it was notprolific in its membership. In 1500, Cistercian monasteries averagedonly six monks. Augustinian monasteries averaged five monks, with theBenedictine order averaging a mere three monks a monastery. Theso-called Great Abbey at Tintern only had thirteen monks. All in all,the dissolution displaced two hundred and fifty monks, nuns and friars,not an extreme number. Indeed, Henry could easily have described them as a minor casualty that benefited the whole nation. The effect on the people of Wales was somewhat more serious, as thepoor relied on the benefactory nature of the Welsh monasteries andpriories. This was a country where fifty per cent of the populationsuffered from malnutrition and an equal percentage of newborn babiesfailed to survive their first year. A lifespan of thirty-five years wasalso not uncommon, which is low, even for medieval Europe. The sheerpoverty and susceptibility to illness (a result of their malnutrition)of the Welsh working class made them dependent on the principalitysforty-six monasteries for alms and food. What made this worse was thatall of the Welsh monasteries were relatively poor, and so all of themwere dissolved in the initial cull of the lesser monasteries. In onefell swoop, Welsh monasticism was ended; for the Welsh there was noadjustment period, no breathing space; all of their monasteries went atonce. With the monasteries gone, a vital source of relief was cut off,a fact that no doubt hit hard in poor h omes throughout Wales andengendered a lot of distaste for the Tudor regime. A dynasty that theWelsh people had supported at its inception was taking away a vitalsource of support. It was to get worse too, as the new Church ofEngland cracked down on idolatry and (in Welsh eyes) took an axe to thepeoples heritage. (iii) The Idolatry Crackdown: A Welsh Perspective As has been stated above, the Reformation began as an essentiallypolitical process, resolving the question of absolute dominion andwhether the church was to be ruled from Rome or by the divinelyappointed sovereign of the nation in question. However, as the TenArticles of 1536 demonstrates, the Reformation did incorporate somereform of the church into its programme. A part of this thatparticularly affected Wales was the crusade against idolatry andimages. In 1538, Thomas Cromwell issued an Injunction ordering every parishchurch to stock an English bible to be made available for all whowished to read it and interpret the Scriptures themselves. As we willsee below, this was of little benefit to the Welsh. In the same year, asimilar Injunction ordered that every shrine in the country was to bedestroyed. This is where the popular image of thugs running around thecountry smashing up churches comes from, and it is a view that is notwithout some justification. As always, Cromwell was very effective, andeven the shrine of Thomas Becket (one of the countrys holiestpilgrimage places) was lost as a result of the zealous evangelicaldestruction squads. This had a particularly damaging effect on Wales,where cultural-religious relics were highly venerated. In a move thataccorded perfectly with the Reformations attempt to completelyassimilate the Welsh nation and culture, the principalitys relics wereruthlessly swept away, with almost nothing (if any thing) surviving thecull. Village processions would often have sacred images carried inthem, these priceless relics were lost. One such relic was the healing cup of Nant Eos. This sacred relicwas in reality no more than a cracked piece of wood, but to the Welshit had mystical powers. Whilst such a phrase sounds laughable to modernears, there is little doubt that the Welsh believed in the cupsproperties. Not only did it have remarkable healing properties, itpossessed the ability to cleanse your soul, keeping you out of hell andin extreme cases, it was believed to bring you back from that foulplace of purgatory. To the Welsh therefore, this was not merely avenerated image, but a physical key to salvation and a medical toolthat went far beyond contemporary healing techniques. As we have seen,Tudor Wales was a grim place and to remove relics such as the cup ofNant Eos was to eliminate hope itself for many of the people whobelieved in them. At a time when the Acts of Union were doing theirvery best to dilute and destroy the very basics of Welsh culture, thepolicies of the Reformation were providing a complementar y service inthe field of religious relics. (i) Why unify? The Welsh Problem The Welsh problem had been of concern to Henry VIII for some time bythe coming of the Reformation. Even though he had never been anyfarther west than Bristol, he was aware that the country which hadhelped his father to the throne was an alien one, out of step with therest of his realm. In a period of heightened nationalism, thedifferences between the Principality and its ruler were brought into amuch sharper focus, and became more clearly defined as a threat to theuniformity of the Henrician imperium. The Welsh language was an ugly tongue when compared to the Latin,French and Greek he had learned at the hands of his tutors, and it hadan alien sound to it. To a paranoid man, it could also be construed asthe ideal way to foment rebellion; after all, it is hard to root outtraitors when you cannot understand what they are saying It wasnt just the Welsh language that concerned the king. Walesstill had a distinct legal system, based on Gaelic traditions whichwere alien to a country based on Norman ideals. The Welsh system was sodifferent that it did not even recognise the English distinctionbetween civil and criminal cases; one of the central tenets of thecommon law system. Outrageously to a modern western audience,manslaughter and deliberate homicide were not even considered realcrimes. In England, such acts were offences against the community, tobe judged in royal courts, and nothing could alter the prosecutorsright to pursue a criminal case. In Wales (and Ireland), it was the kinwho had been wronged, and they who sought a remedy, and as in somemodern cultures, the family could seek financial reparations. None of this was, strictly speaking, a threat to society, or the soundadministration of the Principality. What was (or at least should havebeen) a genuine cause for central concern was that the conquest had notmanaged to eliminate the operation of the law of galanas, a lawregarding blood feuds and the appropriate resolution of such disputes.The principle of compensation was fundamental to the justice of thefeud, and it is not impossible that compensation could have included alife in return for a life. As we have seen above, tolerance was not one of Henry VIIIs qualities.He did not recognise alternative forms and systems of justice,especially when they were operating in his imperium. The root cause ofthe Reformation was his determination to see that his law was the law,and that no legal system, ecclesiastical or civil, could co-exist withhis own. Henry himself said that the Welsh laws were sinister usagesand customs used by the lords of the March for thraldom and tyranny. Of a more practical concern, there was a serious problem with law andorder throughout Wales and it was this that was the root cause ofHenrys acts of union. As Henry himself said in 1520: realms withoutjustice be but tyrannies and robberies Wales was not as much of aproblem as the Marches, which were a patchwork of autonomous fiefdoms,where lawlessness and violence abounded. The main problem with theMarcher lordships was centuries old. The constant threat of rebellionin Wales had led to the Marches becoming a buffer zone between thePrincipality and England, a medieval Rhineland, designed to keep theWelsh wolf from the door. To combat the Welsh threat, extensive powershad been delegated to the Marcher lords, powers that had never beenreclaimed. Within any one lordship, the lord had legislative power and,as Susan Brigden has said, they possessed virtual judicialomnicompetence within their own domain. There were a total of onehundred and thirty-seven separate jurisdictions where the king s writsimply did not run. They were notorious hideouts for outlaws andcriminals, a situation not helped by the fact that a murderer couldsimply cross state lines into another lordship to avoid punishment.For serious, career criminals the Marches were a safe haven that theking could simply no longer permit. The situation is believed to havebeen so bad that J.A. Williamson described Wales as wild anduntroubled by Parliaments laws, or by any law at all, being in aworse state of crime and disorder than England had been in the civilwars. For a king so obsessed with sovereignty and control over hisown domains, reform of the Marches and the principality as a whole wassimply a matter of time. All of these things, coupled with thetheoretical imperative that England was an empire, ensured that theActs of Union were not a long time coming. (ii) The Acts of Union: Aims and Effects Before the Acts are examined, one thing must be made clear; Henrywanted control of Wales, he did not want to set up an effective Welshgovernment, capable of managing its own affairs and getting a grip onlaw and order. He was not interested in bolstering the Welshadministration by giving them the tools to get the job done. What hewanted was a full scale incorporation of the Principality into theEnglish sovereignty. Once this was accomplished, the traditionalEnglish mechanisms could see to law and order in the tried and testedways. As has been exhaustively discussed above, the biggest problem wasthat the very nature of the Marcher lordships hindered the maintenanceof law and order. Therefore, they were a primary target of the 1536 Actwhich saw to their abolition. Some were combined with the unshiredWelsh lands to create the new counties of Monmouth, Brecon, Radnor,Montgomery and Denbigh (in 1543 Monmouth was transferred to England andtwo new counties of Glamorgan and Pembroke were crea ted). The rest ofthe lordships were incorporated into adjacent English counties. Crimescommitted in Marcher lordships could not be avoided by fleeing toanother jurisdiction; they were to be tried in English courts. Thepractice of cymortha, the imposition of obligatory gifts (a majorsource of revenue for Marcher lords) was forbidden. Any Marcherlordship official deemed guilty of corruption or oppression could betried and punished by the Council of Wales, whose powers wereincreased. The patchwork of anarchy had been abolished. Welsh law was another target of the 1536 Act. Henrys distrust of alienjurisdictions could lead to only one natural outcome; English law wasestablished as the law of the land throughout Wales. There were to beno more dual systems, with Welsh and English law operating side byside; from 1534 onwards, the Welsh legal system was no more differentto the national system than was the Sussex or Derbyshire legal system.English rules of tenure and inheritance replaced older Welsh customs.There was only one law in Wales: the Kings law. Of course, the change in legal structure would have meant nothingwithout the mechanisms and means to enforce it. Courts of greatsessions and Justices of the Peace were introduced to bring the Englishcommon law to Wales. The Council of Wales (which sat in Ludlow castlein Shropshire) was now the equivalent of a Welsh Privy Council andCourt of Star Chamber combined, and under the leadership of BishopRowland Lee, was responsible for enforcing the law in Wales (below, wewill examine the success and question the methods of Bishop Lee). To ensure the erosion of the Welsh language, English was to be thenational legal language of Wales. All court hearings were to beconducted in English (which caused obvious problems) and all publicofficials in Wales had to speak English. This was a clever move, itwedded the Welsh gentry to the Crown, anglicising them and driving afirm wedge between them and the Welsh lower classes. Any student ofhistory knows that a revolution needs the support of the middleclasses; the Act of Union ensured there was no benefit to suchco-operation. The Acts of 1536 and 1543 were not all bad news for the people ofWales. Indeed, they had some very tangible benefits. For one thing, thelegal distinctions between Henrys English and Welsh subjects wereeliminated. The Welsh were no longer second class citizens, they couldexpect the same level of due process as their English neighbours anddecades-long impediments to the acquisition and inheritance of landwere therefore removed. Whilst Welsh courts operated on Englishprinciples they were not answerable to Westminster but to theChanceries in Caernarfon and Carmarthen; thereby giving the Welshcourts an autonomy granted to no other section of the kingdom. Mostimportantly to modern eyes (although the reaction at the time wasprobably fairly moderate), the 1536 Act entitled Wales torepresentation at Parliament for the first time in its history. In 1543it sent twenty-seven MPs to Westminster. Clearly, the incorporationinto England was total, with Wales deriving the benefits as well as thecultu ral assaults of a full-blown union with England. Whilst somehistorians claim that the Statute of Rhuddlan (1284) created a unionbetween the two countries, this is somewhat short-sighted. Rhuddlan putWales under the auspices of the English kings, but it made Wales acolony, where its own inhabitants were left to their own devices andtreated as less than their English counterparts. Whilst the acts of1536 and 1543 were a clear attempt to assimilate and dissipate theWelsh culture, it also took positive steps to bring the Welsh into thefold, giving them rights they had never before enjoyed. In Henryscase, the lord giveth at the same time as the lord taketh away.Whatever the pros and cons of Henrician reforms, the Welsh language isstill alive over four hundred and fifty years later, and the Welshcontinue to be proud of their culture and their history. Rowland Lee was appointed president of the Council of Wales as partof a move to gain greater central control of the realm. In Ireland, theEarl of Kildare was replaced as governor by Sir William Skeffington (amilitary captain) and Lord Dacre was replaced as warden of the westmarches in the north by the Earl of Cumberland. All of this happened inthe space of a single month. As has been outlined above, Wales was ananarchic area, in need of a firm hand. Lee was to be that hand, andover the next nine years he conducted what some historians wouldcharacterise as a reign of terror. Like any sensible person, and in line with the thoughts of hissovereign, Lee was alive to the possibility that a Catholic nation suchas France or Spain was likely to invade. Lee took active measures todefend the coasts, recruiting soldiers and hunting out resources torepair the royal castles which had been falling into disrepair. At thetime of their construction, Welsh castles such as those built by EdwardI were designed as Welsh outposts, military strongholds in a freshlyconquered and belligerent colony. By the 1530s, the age ofcastle-building was over. Having mentioned above that Henry VIII hadused the monastic income to fund his extensive building projects; thismay surprise the reader of this piece. But do not be surprised. HenryVIII was a palace builder. He wanted large, glamorous and opulentresidences to relax in and house a Renaissance court that was worthy ofthe name. The type of uncomfortable and old-fashioned castle thatEdward I had deemed necessary in the thirteenth century was deemed ananachronism. They were also hugely expensive. This meant that Lee hadto make do with the castles he already had and hope that there wasntan invasion. Since his prayers were answered in this respect, we cannotjudge Lees success in this area. All we can say is that he seems tohave taken all the precautions a reasonable man could have taken. Lees greatest success and the biggest anvil dragging his reputationdown is his policy regarding law and order. This essay has discussed atsome length the lawlessness and turbulence that abounded in the WelshMarches prior to the arrival of Bishop Lee. His reports were in partresponsible for the reforms found in the 1536 Act, an act which gavethe Council of Wales the means to take Welsh matters in hand. Itensured that the patchwork of private judicial enclaves and palatinatesbecame a large English common law blanket under Lee’s jurisdiction.There is no doubt that Lee earned his nickname of the hanging bishop.Indeed, his entire policy on law and order was to hang people, the morethe better. Hanging was to be done frequently and publicly, especiallyif the criminal in question was of a more respectable background thanthe common criminal. Davies credits Lee with saying that executing agentleman was better than dispatching a hundred petty wretches andclaims he boasted that he had exe cuted four of the best blood inShropshire. Even if this is true, it is a sound policy. One of themajor scourges of the Wars of the Roses had been the major families andtheir constant liberty-taking where the law was concerned. Greatfamilies would wage private wars and other nobles would keep a hold ontheir territories by fear and licensing thugs and criminals to run riotthroughout their lands. The Marcher lordships were no different. Therewas little respect for the law. One way to instil a healthy fearfulrespect of the law was to prove that no-one was above it. If a wealthylanded gentleman could swing from the gallows for a crime then anyonecould. This author is no fan of capital punishment and would point tothe fact that people still kill each other in states where the deathpenalty exists. But in the case of Bishop Lee, it would be incrediblydifficult to argue that his policy of hanging did not act as adeterrent. The Marches and the rest of the principality quickly fellinto line. T he chronicler Elis Gruffyd claims that Lee executed fivethousand men in six years and this would certainly accord with theprinciple ascribed to Lee that it was better to hang a hundred innocentmen than let a guilty one escape the noose. If Lee really did despatchfive thousand souls to meet their maker, then it is easy to see whyWales became a more orderly region under his rule. In 1538, the manhimself said that order and quiet such as is now in England prevailedall over Wales. A key question when determining Lees success is the extent to whichLee benefited from the reforms of 1536, and whether the success of Leewas really the success of administrative reform as imposed byWestminster. After all, the key thread running through the criticism of the Marcherlordships is that they lacked a uniform legal system and an effectiveand unified administrative machine. The Act of 1536 gave Wales boththese things and therefore, the argument could be made, brought orderto the Principality. Before this argument is debunked, it is necessaryto give it a full airing by going over exactly how the Act aided BishopLees pursuit of order. Much was made in the previous section of the legal, jurisdictional andpolitical patchwork that existed in the Marches. Naturally this causedserious administrative problems for Bishop Lee. The extensive rightsgranted to the Marcher lords in the previous century still existed,even if the political and military justification for such a delegationof royal authority no longer did. This left the Council prettypowerless where the lordships were concerned, and meant that any reformLee undertook had to be confined to the Principality. Not that that wasan easy task, for the Principality had, in many places, Welsh andEnglish law operating side by side. These jurisdictional problems weresolved in one fell swoop by the 1536 Act; Lee went from having littleor no jurisdiction to having legal authority over all of Wales. Withoutthis reform of Marcher and Principality law, Lees task would have beenmuch more difficult than it was. Lee now had the power to punish History of the Reformation in Wales History of the Reformation in Wales The Reformation is one of the most studied, most discussed and heavily analysed periods of English history, arousing controversy and interest through the works of academics and the private study of interested individuals alike. J.A. Froude called it [T]he greatest incident in English history, but it would be just as easy to call it an act of sacrilege motivated by a selfish tyrant, interested more in perpetuating his own line than fulfilling his self-proclaimed role as defender of the faith. No matter the differences of historical opinion, its importance cannot be denied, and nor can its impact. Yet few authors have deigned to focus on the impact of this turbulent course of events on the principality of Wales, nor has there been much discussion of the role of its governor, Rowland Lee. This essay will do exactly that. It will begin with an analysis of the Reformation Acts as this author has dubbed them, the statutes enacted by Henry with the specific aim ofremaking the English church in his image. These measures affected thecountry as a whole, and any aspects peculiar to Wales will be examined. The essay will continue with a detailed look at the Welsh Acts,†statutes often called (wrongly) Acts of Union. Obviously, their effectis specific to Wales, and the attitudes of the Welsh people will be especially noteworthy here. Finally, the scope of the inquiry will turn to the man who implemented those policies as President of the Council of Wales: Rowland Lee, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield. To some he was a blood-thirsty man,the hanging bishop who instigated a reign of terror. To others he was a skilled and efficient administrator, a man who was given a job to do and who took the actions necessary to its success. Once this essay isfinished, the thoughts of the writer will be well known, it will be upto the reader to make the final judgement. The background to the Reformation is long and complex, and is morethan a simple matter of a childish egotists desire to take what he hasbeen told he cannot have. Nor is the motivation as simple as apolitical need to secure the continuation of his line through the birthof a healthy son. Both of these were factors in Henrys thinking, butthey were not as simplistic as they have been portrayed. Henry was ascholar and had the capacity for intelligent, theoretical and theological thought. The Reformation was in part the end result of atheory of kingship based on the kingship of David in the Bible, and ona notion of imperium, that a king was the sole final arbiter of allmatters within his realm. Unfortunately, we do not have the available time or space to go into the causes of the Reformation in more detail. All that need concern the reader for the purpose of this study is that the Popes refusal to annul Henry VIIIs marriage to Catherine of Aragon (thereby invalidating the papal dispensation that had made the marriage legal inthe first place) led Henry to break with the Church of Rome and taketotal control of the church in England. The Church of England, as it became known, had the King at its head; he was the defender of the faith, and no foreign power could determine religious policy in his realm, just as it could not determine administrative policies or set taxation. There is a logical (if not theological) sense in this policy,and it was one that fitted with Henrys newfound theory of kingship. (i) The Reformation in General: A Legislative Revolution Henry was a king who ruled with parliament, and this makes analysis ofhis policies easier, since there is a clear legislative framework toalmost every reforming measure he undertook. Indeed, the parliamentthat enacted this legislation was dubbed the Reformation Parliament.It was through Parliament and the legal apparatus at his disposal thatHenry and Cromwell conducted the reformation of the Church, which wasto become Henrys church. The birth of the Reformation (at least in legal terms) came in the formof the Act of Restraint of Appeals (1533). It stated that as King ofEngland, Henry owed submission to no man, not even the Pope. The actproceeded on the basis that a king owed allegiance and obedience to Godand God alone. No earthly being could tell him how to interpret theScripture, or prevent him from annulling a marriage he had adjudgedsinful. In both theory and practice, it created an autonomous Church ofEngland, with the King at its head. The Act (as with almost alllegislation) was politically motivated, for (as its name implies) itbarred an English citizen from appealing to the Vatican against anydecision made by an English ecclesiastical court. The motivation forthis was obvious. It meant that if an English ecclesiastical courtruled that the marriage between the King and Catherine of Aragon wasinvalid, Catherine could not appeal to the pope. If she did, anyresponse would have no legal force within the Engli sh realm. Since theecclesiastical courts were now as much the kings courts as any otherlegal forum, they would dispense a decision in line with hisinterpretation of the law. This may seem tyrannical and corrupt tomodern eyes, but in Tudor England it made perfect sense. The courtsystem existed because the king was meant to dispense justice but couldnot hope to adjudicate every case himself. Personal intervention ofthis sort was impracticable. With this in mind, for a king to advisethe court of the correct decision was a constitutional act of theutmost legality. Part of the coronation oath was the preservation ofjustice; that is (in theory) all interference in a court case was; theking assuming duties he had previously sworn to perform. It is clear that dealing with his political and marital problems werefar more important to Henry and his government than reforming theChurch itself. The second key measure in the Henrician/Cromwellianreform programme was the Act of Succession (March 1534). The Actconfirmed the bastardy of Mary Tudor, (who had lost her title ofPrincess and was now referred to as the Lady Mary). Mary wasdisinherited and the Princess Elizabeth was named the kings truesuccessor. More importantly, the Act provided that any subject, if soordered, should swear an oath recognising its provisions. Most peoplecomplied without question, but both Thomas More and Bishop John Fisherrefused to take it. Both men paid for this allegiance to the Pope withtheir lives. The Princess Dowager (as Catherine of Aragon was nowdesignated), and her daughter also refused, but their relationship tothe Emperor restrained Henry, who left them to their own devices. It wasnt until later in 1534 (November) that the real changesbegan. The Act of Supremacy gave a legal, statutory definition of thekings position within the structure of this newly created Church ofEngland. It gave the king a statutory title of Supreme Head of theChurch of England and assigned the king all prerogatives to the saiddignity of supreme head of the same church belonging and appertaining.In effect, the pope was being displaced as the head of the church inEngland. Henry of course, had a different view. It was the kings ofEngland who had been displaced by the pope, based on spurious doctrinethat contradicted the Holy Scriptures. God had always intended that theking be master of all matters in his realm. That was why He selectedkings personally, putting them on the throne through his divine powers.His intervention at Bosworth Field had put the Tudors in control of thekingdom of England, and Henry was not about to let some bishop of Romeusurp his God-given authority. That would be to defy the will of God.Naturally, Henry was able to find theologians with concurring views.Richard Sampson, Bishop of Chichester wrote a treatise on the subjectthat made the very point Henry was making in the Act of Succession. Itsaid that The word of God is to obey the King, and not the Bishop ofRome.† Despite all of this, the Church of England remained an essentiallyCatholic church, since Henry had little interest in Protestantism.Indeed, many of the measures he did introduce of an evangelical naturewere later reversed. The Ten Articles of 1536 are a prime example ofHenrys attempts to steer a level course between the extremeCatholic/conservative and Anglican/evangelical wings of his new church.He was eager to keep it a broad church, but not willing to countenanceheresy (he burned papists and people who denied the sacraments withequal vigour). They were supposed to constitute a formulary for the newand improved Henrician church and were not without their controversies.For one thing, it only explicitly recognised three sacraments(baptism, penance and the Eucharist), where the Catholic Churchrecognised seven. Emphasis was laid upon the words of the Scriptures,and the merits of simple Christian life (something difficult torecognise in the grandiose magnificence of Renaissance royal co urts).It was not however, an anti-Catholic formulation as such. It did notcondemn the Mass, nor did it condemn the Catholic call for good works.It was a balancing act, with a little something for everybody, and Weirhas described it as a tentative move in an evangelical direction. Ifit was such a move, it was one that Henry soon reversed. The Act of SixArticles in 1539 resolved any latent ambiguity that existed in theEnglish church, returning it to a clearly Catholic structure. Clericalmarriage was condemned and the vows of chastity were now held to besacred and unbreakable, which put Archbishop Cranmer in an unfortunateposition as his marriage had been an open secret for some time. He wasundoubtedly not alone in finding himself in what was now a compromisingsituation, and it is somewhat ironic that Henry was enactinglegislation to combat illegal marriages. One thing of course, remainedunchanged; papal supremacy was not restored, nor could it be. Henry hadspent years espousing his ow n supremacy over the church, and it hadbeen the guiding principle behind his reign for the past decade. Evenif he had wanted to reverse what he had done and re-enter the CatholicChurch, it would be a political mistake of the highest order, and notone that he was prepared to make. Only one man could have dominion overEngland, and that man was its king. (ii) The Dissolution of the Monasteries: Royal Motives and a Welsh Perspective The Dissolution of the Monasteries was seen by some as an unwarrantedattack on a helpless class of people with no means to defendthemselves, and by others as a necessary purging of a corrupt andparasitical class of clergymen who served no pastoral or practicalpurpose. In reality, it was in the main, a land grab. There was anincreasing likelihood of war with France and Henry had gained fewfriends following Englands break with Rome. As the arch-pragmatist andchief minister Cromwell saw it, the monasteries were an untappedresource. Now that the king was overall arbiter of the churchsfuture, he had a legal authority over the monasteries that he had neverhad before. With this new ecclesiastical power came a desire toexercise it. Cromwell managed to push through an extremely efficientprogramme of dissolution, despite the objections of the kings newbride, Jane Seymour. In four short years, all five-hundred andsixty-three religious houses would be closed, and their inmatespensioned off. This freed up an enormous amount of land and finances which, naturallybecame the property of the Crown. With the injection of the abbeysrevenues into the treasury, the royal income doubled. This new moneywould help to finance Henrys extensive (and expensive) buildingprojects and the acquisition of new property (among other things). TheCrown also annexed monastic lands worth  £120, 000 a year, a massiveamount of money at the time, which amounted to one fifth of thekingdoms landed wealth. The Reformation was a time when the king had no significant standingarmy, despite the threat from the Catholic powers of France and Spainand the not unlikely threat of civil rebellion. To offset this risk,Henry redistributed a third of this new land to secure the loyalty ofimportant men, men who he would come to depend on when the northerupted in rebellion in 1536-7. Whilst the church held one quarter of all Welsh land it was notprolific in its membership. In 1500, Cistercian monasteries averagedonly six monks. Augustinian monasteries averaged five monks, with theBenedictine order averaging a mere three monks a monastery. Theso-called Great Abbey at Tintern only had thirteen monks. All in all,the dissolution displaced two hundred and fifty monks, nuns and friars,not an extreme number. Indeed, Henry could easily have described them as a minor casualty that benefited the whole nation. The effect on the people of Wales was somewhat more serious, as thepoor relied on the benefactory nature of the Welsh monasteries andpriories. This was a country where fifty per cent of the populationsuffered from malnutrition and an equal percentage of newborn babiesfailed to survive their first year. A lifespan of thirty-five years wasalso not uncommon, which is low, even for medieval Europe. The sheerpoverty and susceptibility to illness (a result of their malnutrition)of the Welsh working class made them dependent on the principalitysforty-six monasteries for alms and food. What made this worse was thatall of the Welsh monasteries were relatively poor, and so all of themwere dissolved in the initial cull of the lesser monasteries. In onefell swoop, Welsh monasticism was ended; for the Welsh there was noadjustment period, no breathing space; all of their monasteries went atonce. With the monasteries gone, a vital source of relief was cut off,a fact that no doubt hit hard in poor h omes throughout Wales andengendered a lot of distaste for the Tudor regime. A dynasty that theWelsh people had supported at its inception was taking away a vitalsource of support. It was to get worse too, as the new Church ofEngland cracked down on idolatry and (in Welsh eyes) took an axe to thepeoples heritage. (iii) The Idolatry Crackdown: A Welsh Perspective As has been stated above, the Reformation began as an essentiallypolitical process, resolving the question of absolute dominion andwhether the church was to be ruled from Rome or by the divinelyappointed sovereign of the nation in question. However, as the TenArticles of 1536 demonstrates, the Reformation did incorporate somereform of the church into its programme. A part of this thatparticularly affected Wales was the crusade against idolatry andimages. In 1538, Thomas Cromwell issued an Injunction ordering every parishchurch to stock an English bible to be made available for all whowished to read it and interpret the Scriptures themselves. As we willsee below, this was of little benefit to the Welsh. In the same year, asimilar Injunction ordered that every shrine in the country was to bedestroyed. This is where the popular image of thugs running around thecountry smashing up churches comes from, and it is a view that is notwithout some justification. As always, Cromwell was very effective, andeven the shrine of Thomas Becket (one of the countrys holiestpilgrimage places) was lost as a result of the zealous evangelicaldestruction squads. This had a particularly damaging effect on Wales,where cultural-religious relics were highly venerated. In a move thataccorded perfectly with the Reformations attempt to completelyassimilate the Welsh nation and culture, the principalitys relics wereruthlessly swept away, with almost nothing (if any thing) surviving thecull. Village processions would often have sacred images carried inthem, these priceless relics were lost. One such relic was the healing cup of Nant Eos. This sacred relicwas in reality no more than a cracked piece of wood, but to the Welshit had mystical powers. Whilst such a phrase sounds laughable to modernears, there is little doubt that the Welsh believed in the cupsproperties. Not only did it have remarkable healing properties, itpossessed the ability to cleanse your soul, keeping you out of hell andin extreme cases, it was believed to bring you back from that foulplace of purgatory. To the Welsh therefore, this was not merely avenerated image, but a physical key to salvation and a medical toolthat went far beyond contemporary healing techniques. As we have seen,Tudor Wales was a grim place and to remove relics such as the cup ofNant Eos was to eliminate hope itself for many of the people whobelieved in them. At a time when the Acts of Union were doing theirvery best to dilute and destroy the very basics of Welsh culture, thepolicies of the Reformation were providing a complementar y service inthe field of religious relics. (i) Why unify? The Welsh Problem The Welsh problem had been of concern to Henry VIII for some time bythe coming of the Reformation. Even though he had never been anyfarther west than Bristol, he was aware that the country which hadhelped his father to the throne was an alien one, out of step with therest of his realm. In a period of heightened nationalism, thedifferences between the Principality and its ruler were brought into amuch sharper focus, and became more clearly defined as a threat to theuniformity of the Henrician imperium. The Welsh language was an ugly tongue when compared to the Latin,French and Greek he had learned at the hands of his tutors, and it hadan alien sound to it. To a paranoid man, it could also be construed asthe ideal way to foment rebellion; after all, it is hard to root outtraitors when you cannot understand what they are saying It wasnt just the Welsh language that concerned the king. Walesstill had a distinct legal system, based on Gaelic traditions whichwere alien to a country based on Norman ideals. The Welsh system was sodifferent that it did not even recognise the English distinctionbetween civil and criminal cases; one of the central tenets of thecommon law system. Outrageously to a modern western audience,manslaughter and deliberate homicide were not even considered realcrimes. In England, such acts were offences against the community, tobe judged in royal courts, and nothing could alter the prosecutorsright to pursue a criminal case. In Wales (and Ireland), it was the kinwho had been wronged, and they who sought a remedy, and as in somemodern cultures, the family could seek financial reparations. None of this was, strictly speaking, a threat to society, or the soundadministration of the Principality. What was (or at least should havebeen) a genuine cause for central concern was that the conquest had notmanaged to eliminate the operation of the law of galanas, a lawregarding blood feuds and the appropriate resolution of such disputes.The principle of compensation was fundamental to the justice of thefeud, and it is not impossible that compensation could have included alife in return for a life. As we have seen above, tolerance was not one of Henry VIIIs qualities.He did not recognise alternative forms and systems of justice,especially when they were operating in his imperium. The root cause ofthe Reformation was his determination to see that his law was the law,and that no legal system, ecclesiastical or civil, could co-exist withhis own. Henry himself said that the Welsh laws were sinister usagesand customs used by the lords of the March for thraldom and tyranny. Of a more practical concern, there was a serious problem with law andorder throughout Wales and it was this that was the root cause ofHenrys acts of union. As Henry himself said in 1520: realms withoutjustice be but tyrannies and robberies Wales was not as much of aproblem as the Marches, which were a patchwork of autonomous fiefdoms,where lawlessness and violence abounded. The main problem with theMarcher lordships was centuries old. The constant threat of rebellionin Wales had led to the Marches becoming a buffer zone between thePrincipality and England, a medieval Rhineland, designed to keep theWelsh wolf from the door. To combat the Welsh threat, extensive powershad been delegated to the Marcher lords, powers that had never beenreclaimed. Within any one lordship, the lord had legislative power and,as Susan Brigden has said, they possessed virtual judicialomnicompetence within their own domain. There were a total of onehundred and thirty-seven separate jurisdictions where the king s writsimply did not run. They were notorious hideouts for outlaws andcriminals, a situation not helped by the fact that a murderer couldsimply cross state lines into another lordship to avoid punishment.For serious, career criminals the Marches were a safe haven that theking could simply no longer permit. The situation is believed to havebeen so bad that J.A. Williamson described Wales as wild anduntroubled by Parliaments laws, or by any law at all, being in aworse state of crime and disorder than England had been in the civilwars. For a king so obsessed with sovereignty and control over hisown domains, reform of the Marches and the principality as a whole wassimply a matter of time. All of these things, coupled with thetheoretical imperative that England was an empire, ensured that theActs of Union were not a long time coming. (ii) The Acts of Union: Aims and Effects Before the Acts are examined, one thing must be made clear; Henrywanted control of Wales, he did not want to set up an effective Welshgovernment, capable of managing its own affairs and getting a grip onlaw and order. He was not interested in bolstering the Welshadministration by giving them the tools to get the job done. What hewanted was a full scale incorporation of the Principality into theEnglish sovereignty. Once this was accomplished, the traditionalEnglish mechanisms could see to law and order in the tried and testedways. As has been exhaustively discussed above, the biggest problem wasthat the very nature of the Marcher lordships hindered the maintenanceof law and order. Therefore, they were a primary target of the 1536 Actwhich saw to their abolition. Some were combined with the unshiredWelsh lands to create the new counties of Monmouth, Brecon, Radnor,Montgomery and Denbigh (in 1543 Monmouth was transferred to England andtwo new counties of Glamorgan and Pembroke were crea ted). The rest ofthe lordships were incorporated into adjacent English counties. Crimescommitted in Marcher lordships could not be avoided by fleeing toanother jurisdiction; they were to be tried in English courts. Thepractice of cymortha, the imposition of obligatory gifts (a majorsource of revenue for Marcher lords) was forbidden. Any Marcherlordship official deemed guilty of corruption or oppression could betried and punished by the Council of Wales, whose powers wereincreased. The patchwork of anarchy had been abolished. Welsh law was another target of the 1536 Act. Henrys distrust of alienjurisdictions could lead to only one natural outcome; English law wasestablished as the law of the land throughout Wales. There were to beno more dual systems, with Welsh and English law operating side byside; from 1534 onwards, the Welsh legal system was no more differentto the national system than was the Sussex or Derbyshire legal system.English rules of tenure and inheritance replaced older Welsh customs.There was only one law in Wales: the Kings law. Of course, the change in legal structure would have meant nothingwithout the mechanisms and means to enforce it. Courts of greatsessions and Justices of the Peace were introduced to bring the Englishcommon law to Wales. The Council of Wales (which sat in Ludlow castlein Shropshire) was now the equivalent of a Welsh Privy Council andCourt of Star Chamber combined, and under the leadership of BishopRowland Lee, was responsible for enforcing the law in Wales (below, wewill examine the success and question the methods of Bishop Lee). To ensure the erosion of the Welsh language, English was to be thenational legal language of Wales. All court hearings were to beconducted in English (which caused obvious problems) and all publicofficials in Wales had to speak English. This was a clever move, itwedded the Welsh gentry to the Crown, anglicising them and driving afirm wedge between them and the Welsh lower classes. Any student ofhistory knows that a revolution needs the support of the middleclasses; the Act of Union ensured there was no benefit to suchco-operation. The Acts of 1536 and 1543 were not all bad news for the people ofWales. Indeed, they had some very tangible benefits. For one thing, thelegal distinctions between Henrys English and Welsh subjects wereeliminated. The Welsh were no longer second class citizens, they couldexpect the same level of due process as their English neighbours anddecades-long impediments to the acquisition and inheritance of landwere therefore removed. Whilst Welsh courts operated on Englishprinciples they were not answerable to Westminster but to theChanceries in Caernarfon and Carmarthen; thereby giving the Welshcourts an autonomy granted to no other section of the kingdom. Mostimportantly to modern eyes (although the reaction at the time wasprobably fairly moderate), the 1536 Act entitled Wales torepresentation at Parliament for the first time in its history. In 1543it sent twenty-seven MPs to Westminster. Clearly, the incorporationinto England was total, with Wales deriving the benefits as well as thecultu ral assaults of a full-blown union with England. Whilst somehistorians claim that the Statute of Rhuddlan (1284) created a unionbetween the two countries, this is somewhat short-sighted. Rhuddlan putWales under the auspices of the English kings, but it made Wales acolony, where its own inhabitants were left to their own devices andtreated as less than their English counterparts. Whilst the acts of1536 and 1543 were a clear attempt to assimilate and dissipate theWelsh culture, it also took positive steps to bring the Welsh into thefold, giving them rights they had never before enjoyed. In Henryscase, the lord giveth at the same time as the lord taketh away.Whatever the pros and cons of Henrician reforms, the Welsh language isstill alive over four hundred and fifty years later, and the Welshcontinue to be proud of their culture and their history. Rowland Lee was appointed president of the Council of Wales as partof a move to gain greater central control of the realm. In Ireland, theEarl of Kildare was replaced as governor by Sir William Skeffington (amilitary captain) and Lord Dacre was replaced as warden of the westmarches in the north by the Earl of Cumberland. All of this happened inthe space of a single month. As has been outlined above, Wales was ananarchic area, in need of a firm hand. Lee was to be that hand, andover the next nine years he conducted what some historians wouldcharacterise as a reign of terror. Like any sensible person, and in line with the thoughts of hissovereign, Lee was alive to the possibility that a Catholic nation suchas France or Spain was likely to invade. Lee took active measures todefend the coasts, recruiting soldiers and hunting out resources torepair the royal castles which had been falling into disrepair. At thetime of their construction, Welsh castles such as those built by EdwardI were designed as Welsh outposts, military strongholds in a freshlyconquered and belligerent colony. By the 1530s, the age ofcastle-building was over. Having mentioned above that Henry VIII hadused the monastic income to fund his extensive building projects; thismay surprise the reader of this piece. But do not be surprised. HenryVIII was a palace builder. He wanted large, glamorous and opulentresidences to relax in and house a Renaissance court that was worthy ofthe name. The type of uncomfortable and old-fashioned castle thatEdward I had deemed necessary in the thirteenth century was deemed ananachronism. They were also hugely expensive. This meant that Lee hadto make do with the castles he already had and hope that there wasntan invasion. Since his prayers were answered in this respect, we cannotjudge Lees success in this area. All we can say is that he seems tohave taken all the precautions a reasonable man could have taken. Lees greatest success and the biggest anvil dragging his reputationdown is his policy regarding law and order. This essay has discussed atsome length the lawlessness and turbulence that abounded in the WelshMarches prior to the arrival of Bishop Lee. His reports were in partresponsible for the reforms found in the 1536 Act, an act which gavethe Council of Wales the means to take Welsh matters in hand. Itensured that the patchwork of private judicial enclaves and palatinatesbecame a large English common law blanket under Lee’s jurisdiction.There is no doubt that Lee earned his nickname of the hanging bishop.Indeed, his entire policy on law and order was to hang people, the morethe better. Hanging was to be done frequently and publicly, especiallyif the criminal in question was of a more respectable background thanthe common criminal. Davies credits Lee with saying that executing agentleman was better than dispatching a hundred petty wretches andclaims he boasted that he had exe cuted four of the best blood inShropshire. Even if this is true, it is a sound policy. One of themajor scourges of the Wars of the Roses had been the major families andtheir constant liberty-taking where the law was concerned. Greatfamilies would wage private wars and other nobles would keep a hold ontheir territories by fear and licensing thugs and criminals to run riotthroughout their lands. The Marcher lordships were no different. Therewas little respect for the law. One way to instil a healthy fearfulrespect of the law was to prove that no-one was above it. If a wealthylanded gentleman could swing from the gallows for a crime then anyonecould. This author is no fan of capital punishment and would point tothe fact that people still kill each other in states where the deathpenalty exists. But in the case of Bishop Lee, it would be incrediblydifficult to argue that his policy of hanging did not act as adeterrent. The Marches and the rest of the principality quickly fellinto line. T he chronicler Elis Gruffyd claims that Lee executed fivethousand men in six years and this would certainly accord with theprinciple ascribed to Lee that it was better to hang a hundred innocentmen than let a guilty one escape the noose. If Lee really did despatchfive thousand souls to meet their maker, then it is easy to see whyWales became a more orderly region under his rule. In 1538, the manhimself said that order and quiet such as is now in England prevailedall over Wales. A key question when determining Lees success is the extent to whichLee benefited from the reforms of 1536, and whether the success of Leewas really the success of administrative reform as imposed byWestminster. After all, the key thread running through the criticism of the Marcherlordships is that they lacked a uniform legal system and an effectiveand unified administrative machine. The Act of 1536 gave Wales boththese things and therefore, the argument could be made, brought orderto the Principality. Before this argument is debunked, it is necessaryto give it a full airing by going over exactly how the Act aided BishopLees pursuit of order. Much was made in the previous section of the legal, jurisdictional andpolitical patchwork that existed in the Marches. Naturally this causedserious administrative problems for Bishop Lee. The extensive rightsgranted to the Marcher lords in the previous century still existed,even if the political and military justification for such a delegationof royal authority no longer did. This left the Council prettypowerless where the lordships were concerned, and meant that any reformLee undertook had to be confined to the Principality. Not that that wasan easy task, for the Principality had, in many places, Welsh andEnglish law operating side by side. These jurisdictional problems weresolved in one fell swoop by the 1536 Act; Lee went from having littleor no jurisdiction to having legal authority over all of Wales. Withoutthis reform of Marcher and Principality law, Lees task would have beenmuch more difficult than it was. Lee now had the power to punish